Modern India & freedom struggle

{{TABLE: title=Phases of the Indian National Movement

The Spark: The Great Revolt of 1857

The year 1857 marks a watershed moment in Indian history. What began as a mutiny of sepoys in the Bengal Presidency's army soon engulfed large parts of northern and central India, transforming into a widespread rebellion against the British East India Company's rule. While the British termed it the 'Sepoy Mutiny', Indian historians call it the 'First War of Independence'.

The causes were multifaceted, simmering for decades. The immediate trigger was the introduction of the new Enfield Rifle. Its cartridges were greased with a substance rumored to be made from cow and pig fat, offending both Hindu and Muslim sepoys who had to bite them before loading. The first major incident occurred when Mangal Pandey, a sepoy at Barrackpore, attacked his officers. The revolt officially began in Meerut on May 10, 1857, from where the sepoys marched to Delhi and proclaimed the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as the Emperor of Hindustan.

{{VISUAL: map: Key centers of the Revolt of 1857, highlighting Delhi, Meerut, Lucknow, Kanpur, Jhansi, and Arrah.}}

The revolt spread rapidly. Key leaders emerged from different regions, becoming symbols of resistance. These names are frequently asked in the SSC CGL exam.

• Delhi: General Bakht Khan (real commander), with Bahadur Shah Zafar as the nominal head.
• Kanpur: Nana Saheb (adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II), assisted by Tantia Tope and Azimullah Khan.
• Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal, wife of the deposed Nawab of Awadh.
• Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai, one ofthe most iconic figures of the rebellion.
• Bareilly: Khan Bahadur Khan.
• Arrah (Bihar): Kunwar Singh, a zamindar from Jagdishpur.

Despite its vast scale and initial successes, the revolt was ultimately crushed by the British by the end of 1858. The failure was due to a lack of central leadership, poor coordination, limited territorial spread (South and East India were largely unaffected), and the superior military resources of the British.

The aftermath was profound. The Government of India Act, 1858, was passed, ending the rule of the East India Company and transferring control directly to the British Crown. The Governor-General was now also given the title of Viceroy. This act marked the formal beginning of the British Raj in India.

Rise of Nationalism & the Indian National Congress (INC)

The Revolt of 1857, though suppressed, sowed the seeds of a unified national consciousness. The latter half of the 19th century witnessed a surge in political awareness, fueled by social and religious reform movements like the Brahmo Samaj (Raja Ram Mohan Roy) and the Arya Samaj (Dayanand Saraswati), the spread of modern education, and the growth of the press.

This growing consciousness led to the formation of several political associations. The culmination of these efforts was the establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) in December 1885 in Bombay (now Mumbai). It was founded by A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, with the first session presided over by W.C. Bonnerjee. The initial objective was to create a platform for educated Indians to voice their grievances and seek greater participation in governance.

{{KEY: type=exam | title=Founder vs. First President | text=A common trick question in SSC exams is to confuse the founder of INC with its first president. Remember: A.O. Hume was the founder (an Englishman), while W.C. Bonnerjee was the first President (an Indian).}}

Phase I: The Moderate Era (1885–1905)

The first two decades of the INC were dominated by leaders known as the Moderates. They believed in the British sense of justice and fair play and adopted constitutional methods of agitation. Their approach is often described as the '3 Ps' — Petition, Prayer, and Protest.

Key leaders of this era included Dadabhai Naoroji (the "Grand Old Man of India"), Gopal Krishna Gokhale (political guru of Mahatma Gandhi), Surendranath Banerjea, and Pherozeshah Mehta. One of the Moderates' most significant contributions was their economic critique of British rule, particularly Dadabhai Naoroji's 'Drain of Wealth' theory, which exposed how Britain was systematically draining India's resources.

Phase II: The Extremist Era (1905–1919)

A section of the Congress grew disillusioned with the slow, petition-based methods of the Moderates. These leaders, known as the Extremists or Nationalists, advocated for more assertive and radical methods. They were led by the trio of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin Chandra Pal, famously known as 'Lal-Bal-Pal'. Tilak gave the famous slogan, "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!"

The catalyst for the rise of extremism was the Partition of Bengal in 1905 by Viceroy Lord Curzon. While the official reason given was administrative efficiency, the real motive was to divide the Bengali people on religious lines (Hindu-majority West and Muslim-majority East) to weaken the growing nationalist movement.

{{TABLE: title=Moderates vs. Extremists

The Partition sparked the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement, which involved boycotting British goods and promoting indigenous (Swadeshi) products. The ideological differences between the Moderates and Extremists culminated in the Surat Split of 1907, where the Congress split into two factions. Other key developments during this period include the formation of the Muslim League in 1906 in Dacca and the Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act, 1909), which introduced separate electorates for Muslims, sowing the seeds of communal politics.

Phase III: The Gandhian Era (1919–1947)

The entry of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi onto the Indian political stage in 1915, after his successful struggles against racial discrimination in South Africa, transformed the freedom struggle into a true mass movement. His philosophy of Satyagraha (truth force) and Ahimsa (non-violence) became the primary tools of the national movement.

{{VISUAL: photo: A black and white portrait of Mahatma Gandhi in his iconic attire.}}

The First Wave: Rowlatt Act to Non-Cooperation

After World War I, instead of granting reforms, the British passed the repressive Rowlatt Act (1919), which allowed for the detention of political prisoners without trial. Gandhiji called for a nationwide hartal (strike) against it. The protest turned tragic in Amritsar on April 13, 1919, when General Dyer ordered his troops to fire on a peaceful gathering at Jallianwala Bagh, killing hundreds. This massacre shocked the nation and solidified opposition to British rule.

In response to the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy and the Khilafat issue, Gandhiji launched the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922). It was the first large-scale, all-India mass movement. It involved boycotting British institutions (schools, courts, councils), renouncing titles, and promoting Swadeshi. The movement was a huge success but was abruptly called off by Gandhi in February 1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident, where a violent mob set fire to a police station, killing 22 policemen.

{{KEY: type=points | title=Major Gandhian Mass Movements | text=

• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): Boycott of British goods and institutions.
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34): Began with the Dandi March to break the Salt Law.
• Quit India Movement (1942): The final call for immediate British withdrawal, with the slogan "Do or Die". }}

The Second Wave: Civil Disobedience

The late 1920s saw renewed political activity. The British government appointed the Simon Commission in 1927 to review the working of the Government of India Act 1919, but it was boycotted by all Indian parties because it had no Indian members. In this context, the INC, at its Lahore Session in 1929 presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, declared Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as its goal and decided to celebrate January 26, 1930, as the first Independence Day.

To achieve this goal, Gandhiji launched the Civil Disobedience Movement with the historic Dandi March (Salt March). On March 12, 1930, he started from his Sabarmati Ashram with 78 followers and walked to the coastal village of Dandi, where he broke the oppressive Salt Law by making salt from seawater. This symbolic act inspired a nationwide movement of breaking the salt law and other unjust laws. The government responded with a crackdown. The movement led to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931 and Gandhi's participation in the Second Round Table Conference in London, which ultimately failed to produce a satisfactory outcome.

{{SPOTLIGHT: title=Purna Swaraj Declaration | text=At the Lahore Session (1929), the INC under Jawaharlal Nehru's presidency passed the historic 'Purna Swaraj' resolution, demanding complete independence from British rule. January 26 was chosen as Independence Day.}}

The British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award in 1932, granting separate electorates to the 'Depressed Classes' (Dalits). Gandhi saw this as a move to divide Hindu society and undertook a fast unto death. This led to the Poona Pact (1932) between Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, which reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in provincial legislatures within the general electorate, instead of providing a separate electorate.

The Final Push: Quit India Movement

The outbreak of World War II and Britain's decision to drag India into it without consulting Indian leaders led to a political crisis. The failure of the Cripps Mission in 1942, which offered Dominion Status after the war, was the final straw. On August 8, 1942, at the All-India Congress Committee session in Bombay, the Quit India Resolution was passed.

Gandhiji gave the famous call to the nation: "Do or Die". The government acted swiftly, arresting Gandhi and all major Congress leaders overnight. The movement, now leaderless, became spontaneous and widespread. It involved strikes, boycotts, and attacks on government symbols. An important feature was the establishment of parallel governments in places like Satara and Medinipur. Revolutionary activities were carried out by figures like Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Ram Manohar Lohia.

{{COMPARE: leftTitle=Govt. of India Act, 1919 | leftPoints=Introduced Dyarchy at provinces; Bicameralism at the Centre; Direct elections for the first time | rightTitle=Govt. of India Act, 1935 | rightPoints=Provided for an All-India Federation; Abolished Dyarchy at provinces, introduced it at the Centre; Established the RBI}}

Simultaneously, Subhas Chandra Bose, who had escaped from India, organized the Indian National Army (INA) or Azad Hind Fauj in Southeast Asia to fight the British. He gave the famous slogans "Dilli Chalo" and "Jai Hind". Though the INA's military campaign ultimately failed, the subsequent INA Trials at the Red Fort created a massive wave of sympathy across India, further weakening the British position.

{{VISUAL: diagram: Timeline of the Gandhian Era, from the Rowlatt Act (1919) to the Quit India Movement (1942), highlighting key events and their dates.}}

Towards Independence

After the end of World War II, the Labour Party came to power in Britain, which was more sympathetic to Indian demands. The Cabinet Mission was sent to India in 1946 to negotiate the transfer of power. It proposed a three-tiered federal structure and a Constituent Assembly, but failed to reconcile the differences between the Congress and the Muslim League, which was now adamant on its demand for a separate nation, Pakistan.

Communal riots broke out on a large scale. In February 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that Britain would leave India by June 1948. Lord Mountbatten was appointed as the last Viceroy to oversee the transfer of power. Realizing that a partition was unavoidable, he put forth the Mountbatten Plan (June 3rd Plan), which proposed the division of British India into two dominions, India and Pakistan. This was accepted by both parties. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 was passed by the British Parliament, and on August 15, 1947, India achieved its long-awaited freedom.

{{FLASHCARD: q=What was the immediate trigger for the Revolt of 1857? | a=The introduction of the new Enfield Rifle, whose cartridges were rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat, offending both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.}}